Konsep dan Kepentingan Dalam Konteks Perancangan Pembangunan Bandar

Terangkan Maksud Konsep Berikut Dan Kepentingannya Dalam Perancangan Bandar

1. Revitalisasi Kawasan Kejiranan

Merupakan rangkaian upaya menghidupkan kembali kawasan yang cenderung mati, meningkatkan nilai-nilai vitalitas yang strategis dan siginifikan dari kawasan yang masih mempunyai potensi serta pengendalian lingkungan kawasan. Dilakukan melalui pengembangan kawasan tertentu yang layak untuk direvitalisasi baik dari segi setting (bangunan dan ruang kawasan), kualiti lingkungan, sarana, prasarana dan utilitas kawasan, sosio-kultural, sosio-ekonomi dan sosio-politik.

Kebijakan 1:

Revitalisasi kawasan dilakukan pada kawasan-kawasan strategis/potensial yang menurun produktivitas ekonominya dan terdegradasi lingkungan fisiknya, serta sudah menjadi komitmen Pemda untuk menangani

Kebijakan 2:

Peningkatan kualitas penataan bangunan dan lingkungan yang mampu memberdayakan aktivitas ekonomi, sosial dan budaya kawasan.

Kebijakan 3:

Pengelolaan kawasan revitalisasi yang berkelanjutan.

Kebijakan 1:

Revitalisasi kawasan dilakukan pada kawasan-kawasan strategis/potensial yang menurun produktivitas ekonominya dan terdegradasi lingkungan fisiknya, serta sudah menjadi komitmen Pemda untuk menangani kawasan tersebut secara optimal.

Strategi:

Kawasan yang direvitalisasi diarahkan pada:

a)Kawasan yang menurun produktivitas ekonominya, terjadi degradasi lingkungan dan/atau penurunan kerusakan urban heritage.

b)Lokasi yang  memiliki nilai investasi/potensi peningkatan nilai properti yang tinggi.
c)Kawasan strategis yang berpotensi di sektor pariwisata, perdagangan, permukiman, industri, pasar, budaya, pendidikan, ekologi dan warisan budaya.
d)Kota-kota yang strategis menurut UU Tata Ruang    (PKN, PKW, PKK).

e)Komitmen Pemda yang tinggi.

f)Kepemilikan tanah (land tenure) yang tidak bermasalah.

Kebijakan 2:

a)Meningkatkan aksesibilitas, keterkaitan serta fasilitas kawasan untuk mengintegrasikan kawasan dengan sistem kota.

b)Menciptakan kualitas lingkungan yang kreatif dan inovatif untuk mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi.

c)Memenuhi standart minimal pelayanan prasarana sarana kawasan.

d)Mengkonservasi ruang dan bentuk (morfologi dan tipologi ruang dan bangunan) yg signifikan secara kultural dan sejarah.

e)Memperbesar delineasi (batas) luas kawasan PRK agar dampak revitalisasi lebih optimal.

Strategi:

a)Mengembangkan kapasitas Pemda (Local Government Capacity)  untuk mengelola PRK dan Pemda sebagai   pengembang (Local Government as Public Developer).

b)Mendorong konsistensi Pemda dalam merencanakan, memprogramkan, melaksanakan, memonitoring dan  mengevaluasi, serta mempromosikan dan memasarkan   revitalisasi.

c)Menciptakan skema kerjasama pemerintah, swasta dan masyarakat yang menguntungkan setiap pihak (Public Private Community Partnership).

Peningkatan kualitas penataan bangunan dan lingkungan yang mampu memberdayakan aktivitas ekonomi, sosial dan budaya kawasan.

Kebijakan 3:

Pengelolaan kawasan revitalisasi yang berkelanjutan.

(Lihat Diagram: Delineasi Kawasan)

Kebijakan 3:

Pengelolaan kawasan revitalisasi yang berkelanjutan.

Strategi:

a)Mengembangkan kapasitas Pemda (Local Government Capacity)  untuk mengelola PRK dan Pemda sebagai pengembang (Local Government as Public Developer).

b)Mendorong konsistensi Pemda dalam merencanakan, memprogramkan, melaksanakan, memonitoring dan  mengevaluasi, serta mempromosikan dan memasarkan   revitalisasi.

c)Menciptakan skema kerjasama pemerintah, swasta dan masyarakat yang menguntungkan setiap pihak (Public Private Community Partnership).

  (Lihat Diagram: Peran Pemangku Kepentingan)

Pemerintah

A.  Rencana & pedoman revitalisasi kota/kawasan

B.   Konservasi kota/kawasan (bila diperlukan)

C.  Perbaikan & peningkatan infrastruktur

D.  Manajemen revitalisasi kota/kawasan:

−Promosi

−Insentif

−Leveraging the private sector (partnership)

−Land security

−Percontohan

−Relokasi kantor-kantor pemerintah

E.  Pengembangan perumahan pemerintah

F.  Menetapkan kawasan revitalisasi sebagai kawasan strategis

G.  Regulasi rencana pembangunan kawasan (Perda/SK Kepala Daerah)

Masyarakat/Swasta

A.  Manajemen revitalisasi kota/kawasan:

•Promosi

•Adaptive re-use Perbaikan & perawatan

B.  Lingkungan, bangunan & perumahan:

−Menciptakan lapangan kerja/ usaha

−Pembangunan    perumahan & sarana

−Peningkatan kualitas lingkungan

 

2. Creative City
 
The Creative City when introduced was seen as aspirational; a clarion call to encourage open-mindedness and imagination implying a dramatic impact on organizational culture. Its philosophy is that there is always more creative potential in a place. It posits that conditions need to be created for people to think, plan and act with imagination in harnessing opportunities or addressing seemingly intractable urban problems. These might range from addressing homelessness, to creating wealth or enhancing the visual environment. Its assumption is that ordinary people can make the extraordinary happen if given the chance. Creativity is seen as applied imagination. In the Creative City it is not only artists and those involved in the creative economy that are creative, although they play an important role. Creativity can come from any source including anyone who addresses issues in an inventive way be it a social worker, a business person, a scientist or public servant.

It advocates that a culture of creativity be embedded in how urban stakeholders operate. By encouraging legitimizing the use of imagination within the public, private and community spheres the ideas bank of possibilities and potential solutions to any urban problem will be broadened.
 
This requires infrastructures beyond the hardware - buildings, roads or sewage. Creative infrastructure is a combination of the hard and the soft. The latter includes a city’s mindset, how it approaches opportunities and problems; its atmosphere and incentives and regulatory regime. To be a creative city the soft infrastructure includes: A highly skilled and flexible labour force; dynamic thinkers, creators and implementers. Creativity is not only about having ideas, but also the capacity to implement them.

The Creative City identifies, nurtures, attracts and sustains talent so it is able mobilize ideas, talents and creative organizations. The built environment – the stage and the setting - is crucial for establishing the milieu. A creative milieu is a place that contains the necessary requirements in terms of hard and soft infrastructure to generate a flow of ideas and inventions. A milieu can be a building, a street an area, a city or a region.

The popularity of creativity came about because of the increased recognition that the world and its economic, social and cultural structures was changing dramatically. This was driven in part by information technology revolution. The old way did not work sufficiently well. Education did not prepare students for the demands of the new world; organization, management and leadership with its control ethos and hierarchical focus did not provide the flexibility, adaptability and resilience to cope in the emerging competitive environment; cities whose atmosphere, look and feel were industrial and where quality of design was low were not attractive and competitive. Coping with these changes required a re-assessment of cities’ resources and potential and a process of necessary re-invention on all fronts.
 
Kota Kreatif apabila diperkenalkan dilihat sebagai aspirasi ; satu seruan untuk menggalakkan keterbukaan minda dan imaginasi membayangkan kesan dramatik pada budaya organisasi. Falsafahnya ialah sentiasa ada potensi lebih kreatif dalam tempat. Ia menegaskan bahawa syarat perlu diwujudkan bagi orang-orang untuk berfikir , merancang dan bertindak dengan imaginasi dalam memanfaatkan peluang atau menangani masalah bandar yang seolah-olah sukar dikawal. Ini mungkin terdiri daripada berucap tiada tempat tinggal , untuk mencipta kekayaan atau meningkatkan persekitaran visual. Andaian adalah bahawa orang biasa boleh membuat luar biasa berlaku jika diberi peluang. Kreativiti dilihat sebagai imaginasi digunakan. Di Bandar Creative ia bukan sahaja artis dan mereka yang terlibat dalam ekonomi kreatif yang kreatif , walaupun mereka memainkan peranan yang penting. Kreativiti boleh datang dari mana-mana sumber termasuk sesiapa sahaja yang menangani isu-isu dengan cara yang berdaya cipta sama ada seorang pekerja sosial, orang perniagaan , ahli sains atau pengkhidmat awam. 

Ia mendukung bahawa budaya kreatif dibenamkan dalam bagaimana pemegang kepentingan bandar beroperasi. Dengan menggalakkan mengesahkan penggunaan imaginasi dalam awam , swasta dan masyarakat Spheres bank idea-idea yang kemungkinan dan penyelesaian yang berpotensi untuk sebarang masalah bandar akan diperluaskan.

Ini memerlukan infrastruktur luar perkakasan - bangunan, jalan raya atau kumbahan. Infrastruktur kreatif adalah gabungan yang keras dan lembut. Yang terakhir ini termasuk pemikiran yang bandar ini , bagaimana ia menghampiri peluang dan masalah; suasana dan insentif dan rejim kawal selia.  

 

Untuk menjadi sebuah bandar yang kreatif infrastruktur lembut termasuk: Satu pasukan kerja yang berkemahiran tinggi dan fleksibel ; pemikir dinamik , pencipta dan pelaksana . Kreativiti adalah bukan sahaja tentang mempunyai idea, tetapi juga keupayaan untuk melaksanakannya. 

Kota Kreatif mengenal pasti , memupuk , menarik dan mengekalkan bakat jadi ia mampu menggerakkan idea-idea , bakat dan organisasi kreatif. Persekitaran dibina - peringkat dan penubuhan - adalah penting untuk mewujudkan persekitaran yang . Satu persekitaran yang kreatif adalah tempat yang mengandungi keperluan yang diperlukan dari segi infrastruktur keras dan lembut untuk menjana satu aliran idea dan ciptaan . Persekitaran boleh menjadi bangunan, jalan kawasan, bandar atau wilayah. 

Populariti kreativiti muncul kerana pengiktirafan yang meningkat bahawa dunia dan struktur ekonomi, sosial dan budaya telah berubah secara dramatik. Ini didorong sebahagiannya oleh revolusi teknologi maklumat. Cara lama tidak bekerja cukup baik. Pendidikan tidak menyediakan pelajar untuk tuntutan dunia baru; organisasi , pengurusan dan kepimpinan dengan etos kawalan dan tumpuan hierarki tidak memberi fleksibiliti , keupayaan menyesuaikan diri dan daya tahan untuk menghadapi persekitaran persaingan yang baru muncul; bandar-bandar yang suasana , rupa dan rasa adalah perindustrian dan di mana kualiti reka bentuk adalah rendah tidak menarik dan berdaya saing. Menghadapi perubahan ini memerlukan penilaian semula sumber bandar-bandar dan potensi dan proses perlu semula ciptaan - dalam semua bidang.

3. Kualiti Hidup

 

Secara umumnya, kualiti hidup melibatkan perubahan dalam masyarakat dan sistem hidup atau sistem sosial daripada satu keadaan yang yang dianggap tidak memuaskan kepada satu keadaan yang lebih baik. Dengan demikian, kualiti hidup merangkumi bukan sahaja pembangunan ekonomi malahan juga melibatkan pelbagai aspek tertentu yang tidak dapat dipisahkan seperti aspek sosial, psikologi, kebudayaan, politik dan alam sekitar. Namun begitu, aspek yang paling utama dalam memberi kehidupan yang berkualiti kepada manusia secara khasnya mengandungi empat perkara iaitu politik, ekonomi, sosial dan pendidikan (Szalai & Andrews.1980). Menurut Schmandt dan Bloomberg(1969) maksud kehidupan dari sudut yang lain ialah melibatkan aktiviti seluruh negara termasuk tabiat individu, pembangunan, sumber suka atau tidak suka dan pelbagai lagi. Ringkasnya, kehidupan mengubah setiap perkara dan setiap perwatakan sama ada melibatkan kematian atau kehidupan. Kehidupan juga menunjukkan kepada setiap perkara yang hidup dan juga proses kehidupan serta sifat dalam persekitaran. Namun begitu terdapat beberapa masalah dan kesilapan yang timbul dalam pendefinisian maksud kualiti hidup.

 

Kualiti hidup merupakan jangka waktu deskriptif yang merujuk kepada emosi manusia, sial dan fizikal yang sihat dan keupayaan mereka untuk berfungsi dengan tugas biasa dalam kehidupan (Leplege & Hunt: 1997).Kualiti hidup di Malaysia ditakrifkan sebagai merangkumi kemajuan diri, gaya hidup yang sihat, kecapaian dan kebebasan untuk memperolehi pengetahuan dan menikmati taraf hidup yang melebihi keperluan asas dan psikologi individu, untuk mencapai tahap kesejahteraan sosial yang seiring dengan hasrat negara. Apabila sesebuah masyarakat beralih kepada suasana kehidupan yang pada amnya lebih baik, maka kualiti hidupnya dianggap telah meningkat (Unit Perancang Ekonomi: 2002).

 

Mengikut World Health Organization (1993), kualiti hidup didefinisikan sebagai tanggapan individu mengenai posisi kehidupan mereka dalam konteks budaya dan sistem di mana ia berhubung rapat dengan matlamat, jangkaan, tahap dan beban. Lehman (1983) melihat kualiti hidup sebagai deria terhadap pengalaman terbaik yang dialami oleh individu di bawah pengaruh kehidupan masing-masing. Menurut Bigelow et al. (1982), kualiti hidup ialah titik pemisahan di mana ia menyatukan semua faktor dalam kehidupan di mana kita akan mendapati bahawa terdapat kekurangan dan kelebihan dalam keinginan dan kepuasan.

 

Kompenan alam sekitar mempunyai kesan langsung ke atas kesejahteraan penduduk. Pencemaran udara dan air serta kawasan hutan adalah antara petunjuk kualitialam sekitar (Unit Perancang Ekonomi: 1999). Dalam tempoh 1990 hingga 2000 kualitialam sekitar yang diukur melalui indeks kualiti udara, kualiti air dan kawasan berhutanhampir tidak berubah pada 100.2 mata. Tahap kualiti udara adalah sederhana dan baik.

 

Ringkasnya, kualiti hidup berkait dengan kesejahteraan am penduduk. Bagi kerajaan termasuk kerajaan tempatan tanggungjawab meningkatkan kualiti hidup yang lebih baik dengan memastikan keperluan infrastruktur utiliti dan kemudahan masyarakat, institusi untuk pertubuhan sosial dan urus tadbir yang membenarkan hak individu untuk  bersuara dan membuat pilihan pada tahap yang sesuai diwujudkan secukupnya.

  

4. Rupabentuk Bandar

 

5. Dinamik Bandar

 

6. Bandar Global

 

Bandar raya global (juga dikenali sebagai bandar raya dunia atau bandar raya alfa) ialah bandar raya yang ditentukan melalui titik pertemuan penting dalam sistem ekonomi global. Konsep yang berasal dari bidang geografi dan kajian bandar ini berteraskan gagasan bahawa globalisasi difahami sebagai dicipta, dimudahkan dan dilaksanakan terutamanya di tempat-tempat yang strategik mengikut hierarki kepentingan dan pengendalian sistem kewangan dan perdagangan sedunia.
Paling kompleks di kalangan entiti-entiti sedemikiannya ialah "bandar raya global" (global city), yang mana perhubungan bandar raya ini membawa kesan sosio-ekonomi yang langsung dan ketara terhadap hal-ehwal sedunia.^[1] Istilah global city dipercayai dicipta oleh ahli sosiologi Saskia Sassen sebagai memaksudkan London, New York dan Tokyo dalam hasil kerja The Global City (1991),^[2] biarpun istilah world city (bandaraya dunia) yang memaksudkan kota-kota yang jauh menguasai lebih banyak perniagaan global berbanding tempat dipakai seawal-awal penggunaan sulungnya oleh Patrick Geddes pada tahun 1915.^[3] Sesebuah bandaraya boleh hilang kelayakannya sebagai bandaraya global, misalnya yang semakin kurang bersifat kosmopolitan, dan semakin pudar namanya di peringkat dunia, cth. Kaliningrad, Rusia, Thessaloniki, Greece dan Iskandariah, Mesir.

Taraf bandar raya global atau bandar raya dunia memang dipandang tinggi nilainya. Oleh sebab itu ramai pihak yang cuba menggolongkan dan menarafkan bandar raya yang mana boleh dikira sebagai 'bandar raya dunia' atau sebaliknya.^[3] Although there is a consensus upon leading world cities,^[4] the criteria upon which a classification is made can affect which other cities are included.^[3] Kaedah pengenalpastiannya adalah sama ada berasaskan "pengukur nilai" (cth. "jika sektor pengeluaran dan perkhidmatan ialah sektor terbesarnya, maka bandaraya X ialah bandaraya dunia")^[3] ataupun "penentuan perbandingan" ("juka sektor pengeluaran dan perkhidmatan bandaraya X lebih besar berbanding sektor pengeluaran dan perkhidmatan N bandaraya lain, maka bandaraya X ialah bandaraya dunia").^[3]

Towards A More Liveable City

Local Agenda 21

Local Agenda 21 ialah suatu program untuk masyarakat, sektor swasta dan pihak berkuasa tempatan (PBT) bekerjasama untuk merancang dan menguruskan kawasan dan persekitaran mereka ke ara pembangunan mampan serta kehidupan yang berkualiti. Ia seharusnya mengimbangi kepeluan sosial, ekonomi dan alam sekitar.

Pendekatan LA 21

• Usaha sama (patnership) antara PBT (MDM), masyarakat (Persatuan/Pertubuhan), jabatan dan agensi kerajaan serta sektor swasta dalam perancangan dan pelaksanaan aktiviti-aktiviti pembangunan mampan.
• Penglibatan dan penyertaan masyarakat (Community Participation).
• Pendekatan 'bottom-up'.

Pembangunan Mampan

• Pembangunan yang memenuhi keperluan masa kini, tanpa menjejaskan kemampuan generasi akan datang dan utuk memenuhi keperluan mereka...
  [World Commision on Environment and Development (WCED, 1987)].
• Pelan Tindakan LA 21 MDM
• Pelan Tindakan Kebersihan dan Kitar Semula
• Pelan Tindakan Kesihatan dan Keselamatan
• Pelan Tindakan Ekonomi dan Pelancongan
• Pelan Tindakan Pembangunan Sosial
• Pelan Tindakan Pengindahan

Malaysia’s development challenges

Malaysia’s Development Challenges – Graduating from the Middle by Hal Hill, Tham Siew Yean and Ragayah Haji Mat Zin (eds) Routledge, London and New York, 2012, pp. xxvi + 348. ISBN 978 0415 63193 8

Any book on Southeast Asia that has Hal Hill’s name on it is likely to be interesting and thought-provoking. This book is no exception. Hal, together with Tham Siew Yean and Ragayah Haji Mat Zain returns to a familiar stomping ground – Malaysia, its economic growth and development challenges – at an opportune time, as Malaysia seeks ‘ideas and solutions’ to not only move to a high income economy but also to realign the interests of its political elites with the Rakyat.

In the past two decades, Malaysia has received several book length treatment as individuals and institutions investigate and attempt to identify the variables that have contributed to Malaysia’s spectacular economic growth story, as well as to identify ones that could/are contribute/ing to its growth slowdown. Volumes such as “Restructuring the Malaysian economy: development and human resources” (Lucas and Verry 1999),  “Industrialising Malaysia – policy, performance and prospects” (Jomo 2002), “Modern Malaysia in the Global Economy” (Barlow 2001), “Malaysian Economics and Politics in the New Century” (Barlow and Loh 2003),  “Sustainable Growth and Economic Development – a case study of Malaysia”(Mahadevan 2007) , and “Tiger economies under threat: a comparative analysis of Malaysia’s industrial prospects and policy options” (Yusuf and Nabeshima 2009) are among notable attempts to understand, explain and possibly forewarn Malaysians of the challenges that they face through either the discipline of economics and/or of political science.

This volume follows on in this tradition. It is comprehensive in its scope with a strong policy dimension. The volume contains 13 chapters, written by 17 authors addressing a multiple set of issues. Analysing a country involves many moving parts and possibly moving in various directions simultaneously. Hence making a coherent argument of the causality and organising it in a logical sequence can be challenging. To address that, this book takes the following logic. Chapter 1 by Hal, identifies 6 stylised facts about Malaysia [rapid economic growth; rapid structural change; consistent openness; competent macroeconomic management; social progress; institutional quality, and, political economy and ownership structures], and 3 broad and inter-related factors[microeconomic, macroeconomic and distributional] that are central to the Malaysian graduation challenge. The following twelve chapters then speak to these six stylised facts and provides the basis for analysis, assessment and then solution within the 3 broad factors on what needs to be done in Malaysia to overcome the middle income trap.

The volume begins with an excellent preface by one of Malaysia’s intellectual giants,Emeritus Professor Datuk Dr. Mohamed Ariff. He provides a broad sweep of Malaysia’s economic history since independence, identifying succinctly the theoretical basis to Malaysia’s economic and political development strategies, the inherent problems – internal and external – faced over time, and the policy success and failures that successive administrations had made which contributed to Malaysia’s economic growth as well as creating the challenges that it must now face. If one needed a fifteen minute in-depth introduction to the Malaysian economy and its challenges, this preface would be sufficient.

Chapter 1 is the most important chapter in the book, with all other chapters providing the supporting evidence. Chapter 1 not only provides the logic of the book, but also narrates Malaysia’s economic development path, summarises the key factors that has contributed to its success, evaluates which are the factors that will continue to put Malaysia in good stead as well as identify factors that will contribute to Malaysia being stuck in the middle income trap. Chapter 1 makes the analysis by bringing to bear the various growth theories (e.g. evolutionary economics, convergence theory, institutional theories, etc.) but also compares with the actual experience of other countries (e.g. Argentina, New Zealand, South Korea, Singapore, etc.) while identifying the unique issues that Malaysia faces.

The 12 chapters that follow then discusses the following aspects to articulate Malaysia’s development challenges in more detail. Each chapter provides a brief historical overview and then identify where policies have succeeded or failed: (i) Chapter 2 – political reforms; (ii) Chapter 3 – corporate ownership and control; (iii) Chapter 4 – economic crisis management; (iv) Chapter 5 – monetary policy and financial sector development; (v) Chapter 6 – public finance management; (vi) Chapter 7 – microeconomic reforms; (vii) Chapter 8 – services sector liberalisation; (viii) Chapter 9 – technological upgrading in the electronics sector; (ix) Chapter 10 – education sector reforms; (x) Chapter 11 – poverty and income inequality; (xi) Chapter 12 – demographic change and labour force issues; and (xii) Chapter 13 – sustainable development.

The problems identified in each of the chapter[i] appears to be many, multi-faceted, well-known and well-researched. Using’s Rodrik’s conceptualisation of growth factors into deep determinants (institutions, trade, and geography) and proximate determinants (factor endowments and productivity) as a way of classifying these problems (Rodrik et al. 2004), the usual suspects identified in this volume when traced to its root cause appears to be institutional in nature. Problems such as the debilitating effects of political patronage on a whole range of issues; poor quality human capital development; mismatches in the labour markets; protectionism in key services sector; technological level and innovation that is not keeping pace with the income level of the country; poor quality tertiary education system; underdeveloped private sector especially small and medium scale enterprises (SMEs); fiscal profligacy; mismatch between stated public policy objectives and implementation; and environmental degradation can all be classified as institutional failures.

The more interesting question which this volume appears to have neglected is why a government as successful as the Barisan Nasional – the world’s longest continuously elected government – has failed after more than a decade to address the growth slowdown Malaysia is experiencing. This question is all the more interesting as it has been researched extensively for more than a decade. The works of Professors’ Gomez (Gomez 1994; Gomez and Sundaram 1999), Narayanan (Narayanan 1996) and Rasiah (Rasiah 1996, 1995) are illustrative as more than a decade ago they had already breached these issues – Gomez on money politics and institutional degradation, Narayanan on fiscal profligacy and Rasiah on labour and technological upgrading. Furthermore, many studies – from individuals and institutions – have identified what Malaysia needs to do, as this volume does. But nothing much has changed in Malaysia, and some would argue that the situation has regressed further.

Here is where this volume could have done better especially with the array of Malaysia experts at hand. The million dollar question for Malaysia is not what needs to be donebut how to do, what needs to be done. Identifying the problems is often the easy bit. Prioritising, sequencing, implementing, monitoring and re-calibrating them when needed as it unfolds is the tough part. Intelligently, academics have left these to the politicians. However, a chapter which addresses the ‘how to’ would have been most beneficial and would have made this book a stand out.

As Malaysia’s challenges are institutional in nature implies that what is needed is reforms at the very top of the institutional hierarchy. One approach that comes to mind in addressing the ‘how to’ question would be Mushtaq Khan’s revisit of political settlements or as he states it, finding ‘growth enhancing governance’ (Khan 2010). This growth enhancing governance is not the ideal but the practical; a settlement among the competing elites and important stakeholders that allows for institutional stability, while allowing for payments to powerful vested interests, does not negate the overall opportunities for growth and its distribution to the majority of its populace. The ruling coalition in Malaysia may have figured this out in the past but it is clear that this political settlement is not working anymore. It therefore necessitates a new political settlement to graduate into a high income country.

Malaysia can be a model for many countries for many reasons as this volume affirms. More importantly its attempts to reform peacefully is a distinctive feature among developing countries. This volume is much welcomed as it is one source which compiles in a comprehensive manner the issues, analyses them, and suggests reform measures. It should be read by all those who want to understand the challenges Malaysia face as a middle income country and does it in a forthright manner. Most importantly it also makes good reading.

References

Barlow, Colin. 2001. Modern Malaysia in the global economy: political and social change into the 21st century: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Barlow, Colin, and Francis Kok-Wah Loh. 2003. Malaysian economics and politics in the new century: Edward Elgar Pub.

Cooray, Arusha. 2012. “Malaysia’s Development Challenges: Graduating from the Middle, by Hal Hill, Tham Siew Yean and Ragayah Haji Mat Zin (Routledge, London, UK, 2012), pp. 376.” Economic Record 88 (283):597-8.

Gomez, Edmund Terence. 1994. Political business: Corporate involvement of Malaysian political parties: Centre for South-East Asian Studies, James Cook University of North Queensland Townsville, Queensland, Australia.

Gomez, Edmund Terence, and Jomo Kwame Sundaram. 1999. Malaysia’s political economy: Politics, patronage and profits: Cambridge University Press.

Hirschman, Charles. 2013. “Malaysia’s Development Challenges: Graduating from the Middle edited by Hal Hill , Tham Siew Yean , and Ragayah Haji Mat Zin (eds) PB – Routledge , London and New York, 2012 Pp. xxvi + 348. ISBN 978 0415 63193 8.”Asian-Pacific Economic Literature 27 (1):163-5.

Jomo, Kwame Sundaran. 2002. Industrializing Malaysia: policy, performance, prospects: Routledge.

Khan, Mushtaq. 2010. “Political settlements and the governance of growth-enhancing institutions.”

Lucas, Robert E. B., and Donald Verry. 1999. Restructuring the Malaysian Economy: Development and Human Resources: St. Martin’s Press.

Mahadevan, Renuka. 2007. Sustainable growth and economic development: A case study of Malaysia: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Narayanan, Suresh. 1996. “Fiscal reform in Malaysia: Behind a successful experience.” Asian Survey 36 (9):869-81.

Rasiah, Rajah. 1995. “Labour and industrialization in Malaysia.” Journal of Contemporary Asia 25 (1):73-92.

———. 1996. “Innovation and institutions: Moving towards the technological frontier in the electronics industry in Malaysia.” Journal of Industry Studies 3 (2):79-102.

Rodrik, Dani, Arvind Subramanian, and Francesco Trebbi. 2004. “Institutions Rule: The Primacy of Institutions Over Geography and Integration in Economic Development.” Journal of Economic Growth 9 (2):131-65.

Yusuf, Shahid, and Kaoru Nabeshima. 2009. Tiger economies under threat: a comparative analysis of Malaysia’s industrial prospects and policy options. Vol. 566: World Bank Publications.

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[i] Those interested in a chapter by chapter analysis should read Arusha Cooray’s review of the same book (2012) while Charles Hirschman (2013) provides a more historical review.

It’s cool to cycle

Economist and MPPP Councillor Lim Mah Hui made the following address to a full council meeting of the MPPP on 25 October.

Bicycles as one part of solution to traffic congestion

There are three hot issues facing Penang. I call them the 3 Cs – Condos, Cars, Crime representing housing, traffic congestion and crime problems.

The fundamental source of our transport and traffic problem stems from the fact there are too many cars on the road. There will never be enough roads built to accommodate the 10,000 vehicles added every month in Penang.

It is well known in transportation studies that the supply of more roads just creates the demand for their usage. The solution lies in better public transport, alternative forms of transportation, and most importantly controlling the use of vehicles. Just building more roads does not solve the problem. Yet this is where I see most of our resources are directed at.

Today, I will just touch on one alternative form of transportation – the bicycle. In human history, the bicycle is the most efficient and cost effective mode of transportation ever invented for moving within a radius of 20km.

Just reflect on these statistics. A car weighs about 1.5 tons and carries one person weighing 70kg most of the time, i.e. only 15 per cent of its weight; a bicycle weighs 20kg and can carry 10 times or 1000 per cent of its weight.

A bicycle takes up minimum road space; it can go anywhere and does not cause a traffic jam. All it needs is a three-foot wide lane. Remember the Japanese army conquered Malaya not on armoured tanks but on bicycles. And the Vietnamese beat the French at Dien Bien Phu using bicycles.

A bicycle does not emit any pollution while a car spews tons of CO2 that cause global warming and climate change. Worldwide emission from vehicles is responsible for over 20 per cent of total CO2 emission.

Many cities in the world now have woken to this fact, and the more progressive cities are actively promoting bicycling as a form of transport in the cities. The two most progressive cities in the world in this regard are Copenhagen and Amsterdam.

Even Singapore is now drafting a comprehensive plan for making bicycle one alternative form of transportation. Penang has taken some baby steps but much more needs to be done.

Copenhagen had its first 10-year bicycle policy from 2002-2012 which made cycling a priority in its city plan. It had 10 KPIs that included – length of bike network, coherence of network, bike modal share of road use, targets for reducing accidents, comfort, speed etc. It had a budget of RM250m.

Bicycle modal share, i.e., percentage of people using bicycle as form of transport within the city, rose from 20 per cent to 50 per cent by 2010. For the larger metropolitan Copenhagen with a population of 1.2m, 21 per cent of the people used bicycles daily in 2011. The city is now into its second 10-year bicycle plan (2012-2025) which targets four core areas – city life, safety, comfort and speed.

People complain that the weather in Malaysia is too hot for cycling. But in Copenhagen the weather is too cold for cycling. The winter average temperature is 32 degrees F i.e. freezing temperature. In Penang, we must plant more trees in the city to provide shade for cyclists and pedestrians. This reduces the temperature by at least 10 degree F.

George Town is very suitable for promoting bicycling as an alternative form of transport because it is small only 47 sq miles (i.e. 7 miles by 7 miles) and flat. One can easily cycle within the city limit in 20 minutes. Imagine how much traffic will be reduced if more people just cycle around the city during lunchtime instead of driving.

Penang has taken some steps to promote bicycling but mainly for weekend recreation. We now seriously need to promote cycling as one alternative form of transportation for work and commuting. MPPP can be a pioneer in this effort.

The following steps (not exhaustive) should be taken:

• Provide dedicated bicycle lanes to be painted and reflective road studs laid on the roads to improve safety for these users.
• Plant more trees to provide shade
• Provide proper parking space for bicycles
• MPPP work with private entrepreneurs to start bike-renting and/or bike-sharing schemes
• We must start to draw up a bicycle strategy, policy and plan and this must be integrated into town planning. It should be coherent, not piece-meal and ad hoc. It must be bottom-up and not just top-down, i.e., the bicyclists must be intimately involved in the planning. The plan must include a budget.

Lastly, I believe in the concept of leading by example. The mayors of London and a few other cities use bicycle as a form of transportation. I propose that our leaders at least occasionally cycle to meetings. This will be a major psychological boost for bicycling and provide an example for the public to follow – to show that it’s cool to bike.

What is a Sustainable Community?

A sustainable community is one that is economically, environmentally, and socially healthy and resilient. It meets challenges through integrated solutions rather than through fragmented approaches that meet one of those goals at the expense of the others. And it takes a long-term perspective—one that's focused on both the present and future, well beyond the next budget or election cycle.

As a result, a sustainable community manages its human, natural, and financial resources to meet current needs while ensuring that adequate resources are equitably available for future generations. It seeks:

• A better quality of life for the whole community without compromising the wellbeing of other communities.
• Healthy ecosystems.
• Effective governance supported by meaningful and broad-based citizen participation.
• Economic security.

A sustainable community's success depends upon its members' commitment and involvement through:

• Active, organized, and informed citizenship.
• Inspiring, effective, and responsive leadership.
• Responsible, caring, and healthy community institutions, services, and businesses.

ISC views the concept of a sustainable community as a framework to guide action, and here we offer some examples from our experience:

A Healthy Climate and Environment

• Protection and enhancement of local and regional ecosystems and biological diversity.
• Conservation of water, land, energy, and nonrenewable resources.
• Utilization of prevention strategies and appropriate technology to minimize pollution.
• Use of renewable resources no faster than their rate of renewal.
• Infrastructure that improves access to services and markets without damaging the environment.

Social Wellbeing

• Satisfaction of basic human needs for clean air and water and locally sourced nutritious, uncontaminated food.
• Affordable provision of quality health prevention, care, and treatment services for all community members.
• Safe and healthy housing accessible to all.
• Equitable access to quality education services, formal and informal.
• The basic human rights of all community members are respected and defended against injustices including exploitation and psychological and physical harm.
• Protection, enhancement, and appreciation of community manifestations of cultural diversity, treasures, customs, and traditions.

Economic Security

• Community members equitably benefit from of a strong and healthy community-centered economy.
• Diverse and financially viable economic base.
• Reinvestment of resources in the local economy.
• Maximization of local ownership of businesses.
• Meaningful employment opportunities for all citizens.
• Responsive and accessible job training and education programs that enable the workforce adjust to future needs.
• Businesses that enhance community sustainability.